1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates, in general, to methods of manufacturing devices and systems for converting solar energy into electricity such as devices using the photovoltaic effect to convert solar energy directly into electricity, and, more particularly, to a methods of manufacturing a PV device such as a module, array, or panel of solar cells that includes a PV enhancement (or light trapping) layer or film to better trap or capture light or rays from the Sun that are incident on a front or receiving surface of the PV device to achieve enhanced absorption and conversion of the solar energy into electricity. The methods of manufacture are particularly adapted for producing the PV enhancement film that is configured to reduce reflection or loss of incident light when the Sun is normal to the front surface of a solar cell (or to the solar module, array, or panel) and also at oblique angles, thus reducing the need to track the Sun's position with the PV device including the PV enhancement film.
2. Relevant Background
With the growing interest in renewable energy including use of solar power, there is an increasing demand for more efficient solar cells. Solar cells or photovoltaic (PV) cells are devices that convert solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, and solar cells are widely used in devices ranging from satellites and other applications including portable consumer electronic devices that are remote from a conventional power source. More recently, large solar power
collection systems with arrays of cells or PV modules (or solar panels) are being used to supply power to electrical grids for distribution to consumers. Several concerns are limiting the implementation of solar cells including cost of materials and manufacturing, environmental concerns with materials such as lead, and low efficiency of the cells. As a result, researchers continue to look for ways to lower manufacturing costs and for ways to enhance the efficiencies of solar cells and panels, modules, or arrays that include such cells. For example, existing solar cells, such as those based on a silicon substrate, typically have efficiencies of 10 to 20 percent, and, as a result, even small increases (e.g., of one to several percent) in efficiency may represent large relative gains in being able to convert solar energy into useful electricity (e.g., an increase in efficiency of 1 to 2 percent represents a 5 to 20 percent or higher gain in efficiency for a cell design). Even with these limitations, though, the manufacture and installation of solar cells and PV arrays has expanded dramatically in recent years. Some estimates indicate that PV production has been doubling every two years making it the world's fastest growing energy technology, with about 90 percent of the capacity being grid-tied electrical systems that are ground mounted (e.g., in solar farms) or on building roofs/walls. Concerns with global warming and financial incentives provided by world governments will likely only increase the demand for PV arrays and the demand for more efficient solar cells.
Solar cells or photovoltaics (or PV devices) convert sunlight directly into electricity and generally are made of semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips. When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy frees electrons loose from their atoms, which allows the electrons to flow through the material to produce electricity. The process of converting light (i.e., photons) to electricity is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect. In practice, solar cells are typically combined into modules that hold numerous cells (e.g., up to 40 or more cells), and a set of these modules (e.g., up to 10 or more) are mounted in PV arrays or solar panels that can measure up to several meters or more per side, with each cell typically only being up to 100 to 150 square centimeters in size. These flat-plate PV arrays are mounted at a fixed angle facing the Sun (e.g., south) or they may be mounted on a tracking device that follows the position of the Sun to allow them to better capture the Sun's light throughout the day. Solar cells may be formed using thin film technologies to use layers of semiconductor materials that are only a few micrometers thick.
The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energies will work efficiently to create electricity and much of this desirable energy sunlight may be reflected from the surfaces of the solar cell or absorbed by its materials without creating electricity. Due to these and other areas for loss of sunlight, a typical solar cell may have an efficiency ranging from about 5 to 20 percent, with some highly efficient solar cells claiming efficiencies of up to 22 percent or higher. For example, an energy conversion efficiency of 22 percent was announced in 2007 as being a world record event for a practical-sized (e.g., about 100 cm2), crystalline silicon-type solar cell (e.g., an HIT solar cell composed of a single thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers). Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are required to provide a particular amount of electricity, which increases the material and manufacturing costs. As a result, improving solar cell efficiencies while holding down the cost per cell continues to be an important goal of the solar power industry.
Even when a PV array is positioned normal to the Sun's rays, sunlight is reflected or lost to a typical solar cell, with estimates at 5 to 33 percent or more of the light being spectrally reflected and lost. In some cases, the solar cells may be protected from the environment with a glass sheet or with transparent plastic packaging. Significant efforts have been made in the solar power industry to boost efficiency by reducing reflection when the sunlight is incident at a normal angle (or when the angle of incidence is at or near zero degrees) on the PV array. Typical solutions have called for application of an antireflection coating of a material such as SiNx layer or the like on the cell and/or upon the protective glass/plastic layer to minimize the reflection of light from this protective layer. The AR coating provides a layer or layers of material with a desirable refractive index and thickness (e.g., a quarter wavelength) to lessen reflection of sunlight at the coated surface (e.g., the planar surface of the sheet of protective glass). In some embodiments, the AR coating may be a metal fluoride combined with silica (e.g., a flouropolymer), a zinc or other metal oxide (or other transparent conductive oxide), or other material layer. Recently, coatings formed of a single-layer of porous silicon oxide have been applied to a protective glass layer to decrease glass reflection by about 3 percent at noon and by about 6 percent in mornings and evenings (e.g., when the sunlight strikes the solar cell at an oblique or non-zero incident angle). Additionally, other AR coatings are being developed including textured-dielectric coatings and multi-layered, nanostructured coatings (e.g., seven layers of silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanorods). While providing some improvements in light capture and efficiency of solar cells, existing AR coatings generally are most useful in controlling reflection of sunlight when the sunlight is striking the PV array at normal (e.g., near noon for many arrays) and do little to limit other types of reflection or bounce back losses.
As discussed above, the largest problem with the rapidly developing technology of photovoltaics revolves around cost-versus-efficiency. Whether traditional silicon materials are used or newer cadmium telluride or copper photovoltaic constructions are used, efficiencies are still a significant limitation on solar cell use and adoption by consumers and the power industry. While multiple-layered more expensive PV cells that are designed for concentrator systems or to absorb a wider variety of wavelengths (including the longer wave lengths) are significantly more efficient, the more elaborate and expensive multi-layer PV materials also result in increased ray loss at angles other than nearly perfect toward the Sun in both axis. This additional loss is caused by increased ray deflection as a result of cosine fall off as well as the narrow acceptance angles required by the complexity of the PV structures as they attempt to use more of the available wave lengths.
Losses in absorption into PV materials are caused by several factors. One of the factors is normal “cosine fall off” or the lack of absorption due to the incoming angle of the sunlight and the relationship of the incoming rays to the structures in the PV materials. For example, a typical solar cell will have an upper or front surface that is not perfectly planar but is instead textured or rough. This results in many of the rays simply being deflected off of the surface of the PV materials and not being absorbed. However, this phenomenon also happens even when sunlight or rays are directed directly into the PV materials at zero degrees or at a perfect angle into the PV material. Part of the reason for the deflection of the rays is that the structures within the PV materials are not flat and are for the most part three-dimensional. Incoming rays, even when perfectly aimed, are bouncing off these structures (e.g., are reflected) and are never absorbed by the solar cell.
Hence, there remains a need for improved solar cell devices/products such as PV arrays that better control reflection and/or increase the amount of incident sunlight that is absorbed by the solar cells. Preferably, the improved solar cells would have improved energy conversion efficiencies with or without tracking of the Sun's position, and the solar cells and PV arrays of solar cells would not be significantly more expensive to manufacture or require redesigns/modification of the underlying solar cell configuration or makeup.